A patatin-like phospholipase is important for mitochondrial function in malaria parasites.

Plasmodium parasites rely on a functional electron transport chain (ETC) within their mitochondrion for proliferation, and compounds targeting mitochondrial functions are validated antimalarials. Here, we localize Plasmodium falciparum patatin-like phospholipase 2 (PfPNPLA2, PF3D7_1358000) to the mitochondrion and reveal that disruption of the PfPNPLA2 gene impairs asexual replication. PfPNPLA2-null parasites are hypersensitive to proguanil and inhibitors of the mitochondrial ETC, including atovaquone. In addition, PfPNPLA2-deficient parasites show reduced mitochondrial respiration and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, indicating that disruption of PfPNPLA2 leads to a defect in the parasite ETC. Lipidomic analysis of the mitochondrial phospholipid cardiolipin (CL) reveals that loss of PfPNPLA2 is associated with a moderate shift toward shorter-chained and more saturated CL species, implying a contribution of PfPNPLA2 to CL remodeling. PfPNPLA2-deficient parasites display profound defects in gametocytogenesis, underlining the importance of a functional mitochondrial ETC during both the asexual and sexual development of the parasite. IMPORTANCE For their proliferation within red blood cells, malaria parasites depend on a functional electron transport chain (ETC) within their mitochondrion, which is the target of several antimalarial drugs. Here, we have used gene disruption to identify a patatin-like phospholipase, PfPNPLA2, as important for parasite replication and mitochondrial function in Plasmodium falciparum. Parasites lacking PfPNPLA2 show defects in their ETC and become hypersensitive to mitochondrion-targeting drugs. Furthermore, PfPNPLA2-deficient parasites show differences in the composition of their cardiolipins, a unique class of phospholipids with key roles in mitochondrial functions. Finally, we demonstrate that parasites devoid of PfPNPLA2 have a defect in gametocyte maturation, underlining the importance of a functional ETC for parasite transmission to the mosquito vector.

Functional inactivation of Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase GSK3 modulates erythrocyte invasion and blocks gametocyte maturation.

Malaria is responsible for hundreds of thousands of deaths every year. The lack of an effective vaccine and the global spread of multidrug resistant parasites hampers the fight against the disease and underlines the need for new antimalarial drugs. Central to the pathogenesis of malaria is the proliferation of Plasmodium parasites within human erythrocytes. Parasites invade erythrocytes via a coordinated sequence of receptor-ligand interactions between the parasite and the host cell. Posttranslational modifications such as protein phosphorylation are known to be key regulators in this process and are mediated by protein kinases. For several parasite kinases, including the Plasmodium falciparum glycogen synthase kinase 3 (PfGSK3), inhibitors have been shown to block erythrocyte invasion. Here, we provide an assessment of PfGSK3 function by reverse genetics. Using targeted gene disruption, we show the active gene copy, PfGSK3ß, is not essential for asexual blood stage proliferation, although it modulates efficient erythrocyte invasion. We found functional inactivation leads to a 69% decreased growth rate and confirmed this growth defect by rescue experiments with wildtype and catalytically inactive mutants. Functional knockout of PfGSK3ß does not lead to transcriptional upregulation of the second copy of PfGSK3. We further analyze expression, localization, and function of PfGSK3ß during gametocytogenesis using a parasite line allowing conditional induction of sexual commitment. We demonstrate PfGSK3ß-deficient gametocytes show a strikingly malformed morphology leading to the death of parasites in later stages of gametocyte development. Taken together, these findings are important for our understanding and the development of PfGSK3 as an antimalarial target.

Identification of novel inner membrane complex and apical annuli proteins of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.

The inner membrane complex (IMC) is a defining feature of apicomplexan parasites, which confers stability and shape to the cell, functions as a scaffolding compartment during the formation of daughter cells and plays an important role in motility and invasion during different life cycle stages of these single-celled organisms. To explore the IMC proteome of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum we applied a proximity-dependent biotin identification (BioID)-based proteomics approach, using the established IMC marker protein Photosensitized INA-Labelled protein 1 (PhIL1) as bait in asexual blood-stage parasites. Subsequent mass spectrometry-based peptide identification revealed enrichment of 12 known IMC proteins and several uncharacterized candidate proteins. We validated nine of these previously uncharacterized proteins by endogenous GFP-tagging. Six of these represent new IMC proteins, while three proteins have a distinct apical localization that most likely represents structures described as apical annuli in Toxoplasma gondii. Additionally, various Kelch13 interacting candidates were identified, suggesting an association of the Kelch13 compartment and the IMC in schizont and merozoite stages. This work extends the number of validated IMC proteins in the malaria parasite and reveals for the first time the existence of apical annuli proteins in P. falciparum. Additionally, it provides evidence for a spatial association between the Kelch13 compartment and the IMC in late blood-stage parasites.

Structure-Based Identification and Functional Characterization of a Lipocalin in the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum.

Proteins of the lipocalin family are known to bind small hydrophobic ligands and are involved in various physiological processes ranging from lipid transport to oxidative stress responses. The genome of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum contains a single protein PF3D7_0925900 with a lipocalin signature. Using crystallography and small-angle X-ray scattering, we show that the protein has a tetrameric structure of typical lipocalin monomers; hence we name it P. falciparum lipocalin (PfLCN). We show that PfLCN is expressed in the intraerythrocytic stages of the parasite and localizes to the parasitophorous and food vacuoles. Conditional knockdown of PfLCN impairs parasite development, which can be rescued by treatment with the radical scavenger Trolox or by temporal inhibition of hemoglobin digestion. This suggests a key function of PfLCN in counteracting oxidative stress-induced cell damage during multiplication of parasites within erythrocytes.

Structural Insights Into PfARO and Characterization of its Interaction With PfAIP.

Apicomplexan parasites contain rhoptries, which are specialized secretory organelles that coordinate host cell invasion. During the process of invasion, rhoptries secrete their contents to facilitate interaction with, and entry into, the host cell. Here, we report the crystal structure of the rhoptry protein Armadillo Repeats-Only (ARO) from the human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum (PfARO). The structure of PfARO comprises five tandem Armadillo-like (ARM) repeats, with adjacent ARM repeats stacked in a head-to-tail orientation resulting in PfARO adopting an elongated curved shape. Interestingly, the concave face of PfARO contains two distinct patches of highly conserved residues that appear to play an important role in protein-protein interaction. We functionally characterized the P. falciparum homolog of ARO interacting protein (PfAIP) and demonstrate that it localizes to the rhoptries. We show that conditional mislocalization of PfAIP leads to deficient red blood cell invasion. Guided by the structure, we identified mutations of PfARO that lead to mislocalization of PfAIP. Using proximity-based biotinylation we probe into PfAIP interacting proteins.

Hierarchical phosphorylation of apical membrane antigen 1 is required for efficient red blood cell invasion by malaria parasites.

Central to the pathogenesis of malaria is the proliferation of Plasmodium falciparum parasites within human erythrocytes. Parasites invade erythrocytes via a coordinated sequence of receptor-ligand interactions between the parasite and host cell. One key ligand, Apical Membrane Antigen 1 (AMA1), is a leading blood-stage vaccine and previous work indicates that phosphorylation of its cytoplasmic domain (CPD) is important to its function during invasion. Here we investigate the significance of each of the six available phospho-sites in the CPD. We confirm that the cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signalling pathway elicits a phospho-priming step upon serine 610 (S610), which enables subsequent phosphorylation in vitro of a conserved, downstream threonine residue (T613) by glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3). Both phosphorylation steps are required for AMA1 to function efficiently during invasion. This provides the first evidence that the functions of key invasion ligands of the malaria parasite are regulated by sequential phosphorylation steps.

Pellicle formation in the malaria parasite.

The intraerythrocytic developmental cycle of Plasmodium falciparum is completed with the release of up to 32 invasive daughter cells, the merozoites, into the blood stream. Before release, the final step of merozoite development is the assembly of the cortical pellicle, a multi-layered membrane structure. This unique apicomplexan feature includes the inner membrane complex (IMC) and the parasite's plasma membrane. A dynamic ring structure, referred to as the basal complex, is part of the IMC and helps to divide organelles and abscises in the maturing daughter cells. Here, we analyze the dynamics of the basal complex of P. falciparum. We report on a novel transmembrane protein of the basal complex termed BTP1, which is specific to the genus Plasmodium. It colocalizes with the known basal complex marker protein MORN1 and shows distinct dynamics as well as localization when compared to other IMC proteins during schizogony. Using a parasite plasma membrane marker cell line, we correlate dynamics of the basal complex with the acquisition of the maternal membrane. We show that plasma membrane invagination and IMC propagation are interlinked during the final steps of cell division.

The role of palmitoylation for protein recruitment to the inner membrane complex of the malaria parasite.

To survive and persist within its human host, the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum utilizes a battery of lineage-specific innovations to invade and multiply in human erythrocytes. With central roles in invasion and cytokinesis, the inner membrane complex, a Golgi-derived double membrane structure underlying the plasma membrane of the parasite, represents a unique and unifying structure characteristic to all organisms belonging to a large phylogenetic group called Alveolata. More than 30 structurally and phylogenetically distinct proteins are embedded in the IMC, where a portion of these proteins displays N-terminal acylation motifs. Although N-terminal myristoylation is catalyzed co-translationally within the cytoplasm of the parasite, palmitoylation takes place at membranes and is mediated by palmitoyl acyltransferases (PATs). Here, we identify a PAT (PfDHHC1) that is exclusively localized to the IMC. Systematic phylogenetic analysis of the alveolate PAT family reveals PfDHHC1 to be a member of a highly conserved, apicomplexan-specific clade of PATs. We show that during schizogony this enzyme has an identical distribution like two dual-acylated, IMC-localized proteins (PfISP1 and PfISP3). We used these proteins to probe into specific sequence requirements for IMC-specific membrane recruitment and their interaction with differentially localized PATs of the parasite.

Design, synthesis, and application of stimulus-sensing biohybrid hydrogels.

A key feature of any living system is the ability to sense and react to the environmental stimuli. The biochemical characterization of the underlying biological sensors combined with advances in polymer chemistry has enabled the development of stimulus-sensitive biohybrid materials that translate most diverse chemical and biological input into a precise change in material properties. In this review article, we first describe synthesis strategies of how biological and chemical polymers can functionally be interconnected. We then provide a comprehensive overview of how the different properties of biological sensor molecules such as competitive target binding and allosteric modulation can be harnessed to develop responsive materials with applications in tissue engineering and drug delivery.